What Is A Variable Ratio

Schedules of Reinforcement

By Annabelle G.Y. Lim , published July 02, 2020

Key Takeaways: Reinforcement Schedules

A reinforcement schedule is a rule stating which instances of behavior, if any, will be reinforced.
Reinforcement schedules can be divided into two broad categories: continuous schedules and partial schedules (also chosen intermittent schedules).
In a continuous schedule every instance of a desired behavior is reinforced, whereas partial schedules merely reinforce the desired beliefs occasionally.
Partial reinforcement schedules are described equally either fixed or variable, and as either interval or ratio.
Combinations of these four descriptors yield four kinds of partial reinforcement schedules: fixed-ratio, fixed-interval, variable-ratio and variable-interval.

In 1957, a revolutionary book for the field of behavioral science was published: Schedules of Reinforcement by C.B. Ferster and B.F. Skinner.

The book described that organisms could exist reinforced on different schedules and that unlike schedules resulted in varied behavioral outcomes.

Ferster and Skinner'due south piece of work established that how and when behaviors were reinforced carried significant furnishings on the strength and consistency of those behaviors.

Introduction

A schedule of reinforcement is a component of operant conditioning (also known as ininstrumental conditioning). It consists of an arrangement to determine when to reinforce behavior. For example, whether to reinforce in relation to time or number of responses.

Schedules of reinforcement can exist divided into two broad categories: continuous reinforcement, which reinforces a response every time, and fractional reinforcement, which reinforces a response occasionally.

The type of reinforcement schedule used significantly impacts the response charge per unit and resistance to extinction of the behavior.

Enquiry into schedules of reinforcement has yielded important implications for the field of behavioral science, including choice behavior, behavioral pharmacology and behavioral economics.

Continuous Reinforcement

In continuous schedules, reinforcement is provided every unmarried time after the desired behavior.

Due to the behavior reinforced every time, the association is easy to brand and learning occurs quickly. However, this also means that extinction occurs quickly after reinforcement is no longer provided.

For Example

We can better empathize the concept of continuous reinforcement by using candy machines as an example.

Processed machines are examples of continuous reinforcement because every fourth dimension we put money in (behavior), we receive processed in return (positive reinforcement).

Japan Candy Machine

However, if a candy machine were to fail to provide processed twice in a row, we would probable stop trying to put coin in (Myers, 2011).

We take come to expect our beliefs to be reinforced every time it is performed and quickly abound discouraged if it is not.

Fractional (Intermittent) Reinforcement Schedules

Different continuous schedules, fractional schedules just reinforce the desired beliefs occasionally rather than all the time. This leads to slower learning since it is initially more difficult to make the clan between beliefs and reinforcement.

However, partial schedules also produce behavior that is more resistant to extinction. Organisms are tempted to persist in their beliefs in hopes that they will somewhen be rewarded.

For instance, slot machines at casinos operate on partial schedules. They provide money (positive reinforcement) after an unpredictable number of plays (behavior). Hence, slot players are likely to continuously play slots in the hopes that they will proceeds coin the next circular (Myers, 2011).

Fractional reinforcement schedules occur the nearly oft in everyday life, and vary according to the number of responses rewarded (fixed or variable) or the time gap (interval or ratio) between response.

Stock-still Schedule

In a fixed schedule the number of responses or amount of fourth dimension between reinforcements is set and unchanging. The schedule is anticipated.

Variable Schedule

In a variable schedule the number of responses or corporeality of time between reinforcements modify randomly. The schedule is unpredictable.

Ratio Schedule

In a ratio schedule reinforcement occurs after a certain number of responses have been emitted.

Interval Schedule

Interval schedules involve reinforcing a beliefs later on a period of time has passed.

Combinations of these iv descriptors yield four kinds of fractional reinforcement schedules: fixed-ratio, fixed-interval, variable-ratio and variable-interval.

Stock-still Interval Schedule

In operant conditioning, a fixed interval schedule is when reinforcement is given to a desired response after specific (anticipated) corporeality of time has passed.

Such a schedule results in a trend for organisms to increase the frequency of responses closer to the anticipated time of reinforcement. However, immediately after being reinforced, the frequency of responses decreases.

The fluctuation in response rates means that a fixed-interval schedule will produce a scalloped pattern (refer to figure below) rather than steady rates of responding.

For Example

An example of a fixed-interval schedule would be a teacher giving students a weekly quiz every Monday.

Over the weekend, there is suddenly a flurry of studying for the quiz. On Mon, the students have the quiz and are reinforced for studying (positive reinforcement: receive a good grade; negative reinforcement: do not fail the quiz).

For the next few days, they are likely to relax after finishing the stressful experience until the next quiz date draws too near for them to ignore.

Variable Interval Schedule

In operant conditioning, a variable interval schedule is when the reinforcement is provided after a random (unpredictable) amount of fourth dimension has passes and post-obit a specific behavior being performed.

This schedule produces a low, steady responding rate since organisms are unaware of the side by side time they will receive reinforcers.

For Example

A pigeon in Skinner's box has to peck a bar in order to receive a food pellet. It is given a food pellet afterwards varying time intervals ranging from 2-5 minutes.

Skinner Box illustrating Operant Conditioning

Information technology is given a pellet after three minutes, and then 5 minutes, and then 2 minutes, etc. It will answer steadily since it does non know when its behavior volition exist reinforced.

Fixed Ratio Schedule

In operant conditioning, a fixed-ratio schedule reinforces behavior after a specified number of correct responses.

This kind of schedule results in high, steady rates of responding. Organisms are persistent in responding because of the hope that the adjacent response might be 1 needed to receive reinforcement. This schedule is utilized in lottery games.

For Case

An example of a fixed-ratio schedule would exist a dressmaker ibeing paid $500 subsequently every 10 dresses that they make. After sending off a shipment of 10 dresses, they are reinforced with $500. They are likely to take a short intermission immediately after this reinforcement before they begin producing dresses again.

Variable Ratio Schedule

A variable ratio schedule is a schedule of reinforcement where a behavior is reinforced subsequently a random number of responses.

This kind of schedule results in high, steady rates of responding. Organisms are persistent in responding because of the hope that the next response might be i needed to receive reinforcement. This schedule is utilized in lottery games.

For Case

An example of a fixed-ratio schedule would be a child being given a candy for every 3-x pages of a book they read. For example, they are given a candy after reading 5 pages, and then 3 pages, so 7 pages, and so 8 pages, etc.

The unpredictable reinforcement motivates them to keep reading, fifty-fifty if they are not immediately reinforced subsequently reading one page.

Response Rates of Dissimilar Reinforcement Schedules

Ratio schedules – those linked to number of responses – produce higher response rates compared to interval schedules.

As well, variable schedules produce more consistent behavior than fixed schedules; unpredictability of reinforcement results in more consistent responses than anticipated reinforcement (Myers, 2011).

Extinction of Responses Reinforced at Different Schedules

Resistance to extinction refers to how long a behavior continues to be displayed even after information technology is no longer being reinforced. A response high in resistance to extinction will take a longer time to become completely extinct.

Different schedules of reinforcement produce dissimilar levels of resistance to extinction. In full general, schedules that reinforce unpredictably are more resistant to extinction.

Therefore, the variable-ratio schedule is more resistant to extinction than the fixed-ratio schedule. The variable-interval schedule is more than resistant to extinction than the fixed-interval schedule as long as the average intervals are similar.

In the fixed-ratio schedule, resistance to extinction increases as the ratio increases. In the stock-still-interval schedule, resistance to extinction increases equally the interval lengthens in time.

Out of the 4 types of partial reinforcement schedules, the variable-ratio is the schedule most resistant to extinction. This can help to explain addiction to gambling.

Even as gamblers may not receive reinforcers after a high number of responses, they remain hopeful that they will be reinforced soon.

Implications for Behavioral Psychology

In his article "Schedules of Reinforcement at 50: A Retroactive Appreciation," Morgan (2010) describes the ways in which schedules of reinforcement are existence used to research important areas of behavioral science.

Choice Behavior

behaviorists have long been interested in how organisms brand choices nearly behavior – how they choose betwixt alternatives and reinforcers. They have been able to written report behavioral option through the use of concurrent schedules.

Through operating ii dissever schedules of reinforcement (often both variable-interval schedules) simultaneously, researchers are able to study how organisms allocate their behavior to the dissimilar options.

An important discovery has been the matching police, which states that an organism's response rates to a certain schedule volition closely follow the ratio that reinforcement has been obtained.

For instance, say that Joe's father gave Joe coin almost every time Joe asked for it but Joe'due south mother almost never gave Joe money when he asked for it. Since Joe's response of asking for money is reinforced more often when he asks his father, he is more likely to ask his begetter rather than his female parent for money.

Research has constitute that individuals will endeavor to cull behavior that will provide them with the largest reward. In that location are also further factors that impact an organism'southward behavioral choice: rate of reinforcement, quality of reinforcement, delay to reinforcement and response effort.

The blog Blubbering behavior summarizes the findings well: "Everyone prefers college amounts, quality, and rates of advantage. They prefer rewards that come sooner and requires less overall effort to receive."

Behavioral Pharmacology

Schedules of reinforcement are used to evaluate preference and corruption potential for drugs. 1 method used in behavioral pharmacological research to practise so is through a progressive ratio schedule.

In a progressive ratio schedule, the response requirement is continuously heightened each fourth dimension afterwards reinforcement is attained. In the instance of pharmacology, participants must demonstrate an increasing number of responses in order to reach an injection of a drug (reinforcement).

Under a progressive ratio schedule, a single injection may require upwards to thousands of responses. Participants are measured for the betoken where responding eventually stops, which is referred to every bit the "interruption betoken."

Gathering data about the break points of drugs allows for a categorization mirroring the abuse potential of different drugs. Using the progressive ratio schedule to evaluate drug preference and/or choice is at present commonplace in behavioral pharmacology.

Behavioral Economic science

Operant experiments offer an platonic way to written report microeconomic behavior; participants tin exist viewed as consumers and reinforcers as commodities.

Through experimenting with unlike schedules of reinforcement, researchers tin alter the availability or cost of a commodity and rails how response allocation changes as a issue.

For example, changing the ratio schedule (increasing or decreasing the number of responses needed to receive the reinforcer) is a fashion to study elasticity.

Another case of the role reinforcement schedules play is in studying substitutability by making different commodities available at the same price (same schedule of reinforcement). By using the operant laboratory to study behavior, researchers accept the benefit of beingness able to manipulate independent variables and mensurate the depending variables.

Mini Quiz

Below are examples of schedules of reinforcement at work in the real earth. Read the examples and and so determine which kind of reinforcement schedule is being used.

Near the Writer

Annabelle Lim is a second-year student majoring in psychology and minoring in educational studies at Harvard College. She is interested in the intersections between psychology and education, equally well as psychology and the law.

How to reference this article:

Lim, A (2020, July 02). Schedules of reinforcement. Simply Psychology. world wide web.simplypsychology.org/schedules-of-reinforcement.html

APA Mode References

Ferster, C. B., & Skinner, B. F. (1957). Schedules of reinforcement. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.

Morgan, D. 50. (2010). Schedules of Reinforcement at 50: A Retrospective Appreciation. The Psychological Record; Heidelberg, 60(1), 151–172.

Myers, David G. (2011). Psychology (tenth ed.). Worth Publishers.

What Influences My Behavior? The Matching Police Explanation That Will Modify How You lot Empathise Your Actions. (2017, August 27). Behaviour Babble. https://www.behaviourbabble.com/what-influences-my-behavior/

How to reference this article:

Lim, A (2020, July 02). Schedules of reinforcement. Simply Psychology. www.simplypsychology.org/schedules-of-reinforcement.html

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